Histone
Histones are DNA-packaging proteins that help organize eukaryotic genomes into chromatin. They form the core of nucleosomes, influence access to genes, and carry chemical modifications involved in epigenetic regulation.
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Nucleosome
A nucleosome is the basic repeating unit of chromatin in eukaryotic cells. It packages DNA by wrapping it around histone proteins, helping long genomes fit inside nuclei while shaping access to genes.
Chromatin
Chromatin is the DNA-protein material that packages eukaryotic genomes inside the cell nucleus. Its structure helps compact DNA while also controlling access for transcription, replication, repair, and chromosome formation.
Epigenetics
Epigenetics studies changes in gene activity that do not alter the underlying DNA sequence. It helps explain how cells with the same genome can behave differently, respond to environments, and maintain specialized identities.
RNA sequencing
RNA sequencing, often called RNA-seq, measures RNA molecules in a sample using sequencing. It helps researchers study gene expression, transcriptomes, cell states, disease biology, and how genomes are used in living cells.
DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the order of nucleotide bases in DNA. It turns genetic material into readable data, making modern genomics, disease research, evolutionary studies, and metagenomics possible.
Metagenomics
Metagenomics studies genetic material recovered directly from mixed samples such as soil, seawater, or the human gut. Instead of growing one organism at a time, it uses sequencing and computation to examine whole microbial communities.
Bacteriophage
A bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria. Phages shape microbial ecosystems, move genes between bacterial cells, and are studied as tools for genetics, biotechnology, and possible treatment of some bacterial infections.
Horizontal gene transfer
Horizontal gene transfer is the movement of genetic material between organisms outside ordinary parent-to-offspring inheritance. It is especially important in bacteria, where transformation, transduction, and conjugation can spread new traits through populations.
Bacterial transformation
Bacterial transformation is the uptake of external DNA by a bacterial cell. In nature, it is one route of horizontal gene transfer; in laboratories, it is a standard way to introduce plasmids or recombinant DNA into competent bacteria for cloning, expression, and analysis.
DNA ligase
DNA ligase is an enzyme that joins breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA. It seals nicks during DNA replication and repair, and purified ligases are essential tools for joining DNA fragments in cloning and recombinant DNA work.
Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA is DNA assembled from sequences that did not originally occur together. In the lab, researchers can join DNA fragments with vectors such as plasmids, introduce them into host cells, and use the resulting molecules to study genes, make proteins, and build biotechnology tools.
Plasmid
A plasmid is a small DNA molecule, often circular and found in bacteria, that can replicate separately from the main chromosome. Natural plasmids can carry useful genes such as antibiotic resistance genes, and engineered plasmids are central tools in cloning, gene expression, and biotechnology.
Restriction enzyme
A restriction enzyme is a DNA-cutting enzyme, usually isolated from bacteria, that recognizes specific DNA sequences and cuts at or near those sites. Restriction enzymes are natural defense tools and practical workhorses for DNA cloning, mapping, fragment analysis, and biotechnology.
Gel electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a laboratory method for separating DNA, RNA, or proteins as they move through a gel under an electric field. It is widely used to check PCR products, estimate fragment size, compare samples, and prepare biomolecules for further analysis.
PCR
PCR, or polymerase chain reaction, is a laboratory technique for rapidly amplifying a selected DNA segment. By cycling temperature and using primers plus a heat-stable DNA polymerase, PCR can turn tiny amounts of genetic material into enough copies for analysis.
DNA polymerase
DNA polymerases are enzymes that build DNA strands from nucleotide building blocks. They are essential for genome replication, many DNA repair pathways, and laboratory techniques that copy DNA, but they can only extend from a primer and synthesize new DNA in one direction.
RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase is the enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription. It recognizes transcription start regions with help from other factors, opens DNA locally, adds RNA nucleotides, and produces transcripts used as mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, and other RNAs.
Translation
Translation is the biological process that uses messenger RNA instructions to build a protein. Ribosomes read mRNA codons, transfer RNAs bring amino acids, and the growing chain folds into a protein that can do cellular work.
Transcription
Transcription is the process of making an RNA copy from a DNA template. It is a central step in gene expression, allowing cells to turn stored DNA information into messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, and other functional RNA molecules.
Ribosome
A ribosome is a cellular machine made of ribosomal RNA and proteins that builds proteins from messenger RNA instructions. It reads codons, positions transfer RNAs, forms peptide bonds, and links the genetic code to the working proteins of the cell.
Genetic code
The genetic code is the rule set cells use to translate nucleotide sequences into protein sequences. It connects codons in messenger RNA with amino acids, start signals, stop signals, and the molecular machinery that builds proteins.
Mutation
A mutation is a change in genetic sequence. Mutations can happen during DNA copying, after DNA damage, or through larger chromosome changes, and they can be neutral, harmful, beneficial, inherited, or limited to particular cells.
Allele
An allele is one version of a DNA sequence at a particular genomic location. Alleles explain why individuals can carry different versions of the same gene or DNA segment, and they help connect inheritance, traits, genetic variation, and disease risk.
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