Statistical inference
Statistical inference uses sample data and models to make uncertainty-aware claims about a wider population or process.
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Sampling error
Sampling error is the difference between a sample estimate and the population value caused by observing only part of a population.
Margin of error
A margin of error is the plus-or-minus range around an estimate at a stated confidence level.
Standard error
A standard error measures how much a sample statistic would vary across repeated samples.
Type II error
A Type II error happens when a statistical test fails to reject a null hypothesis that is actually false.
Type I error
A Type I error happens when a statistical test rejects a null hypothesis that is actually true.
Hypothesis testing
Hypothesis testing is a statistical workflow for comparing observed data with a stated baseline claim.
P-value
A p-value is a probability calculated under a null model for results at least as extreme as the observed data.
Null hypothesis
A null hypothesis is the baseline statistical claim tested against observed data.
Statistical significance
Statistical significance is a rule-based judgment that observed data are unlikely under a specified null hypothesis.
Confidence interval
A confidence interval is a range estimate that shows uncertainty around a sample-based statistic.
Effect size
Effect size is a statistical measure of how large a difference, association, or intervention effect is.
P-hacking
P-hacking is the practice of trying many analysis choices until a statistically significant result appears.
Statistical power
Statistical power is the probability that a study will detect a real effect when that effect truly exists.
Publication bias
Publication bias happens when the studies that become visible in the literature differ systematically from all the studies that were actually conducted.
Registered report
A registered report is a journal article format in which the research question, methods, and analysis plan are peer reviewed before results are known.
Replication crisis
The replication crisis is a debate about why many published research findings are difficult to reproduce or replicate.
Reproducibility
Reproducibility is the ability to obtain consistent research results when the same data, methods, code, and analysis conditions are used.
Peer review
Peer review is the evaluation of scholarly work by other experts before, during, or after publication.
Preprint
A preprint is a public version of a research manuscript shared before formal journal peer review and publication.
Open access
Open access is a publishing model that makes scholarly research available online for readers without price barriers.
Open science
Open science is a set of practices that make scientific knowledge, data, methods, tools, and participation more accessible and reusable.
Citizen science
Citizen science is research in which members of the public help ask questions, collect data, classify information, or solve scientific problems.
Civic technology
Civic technology is technology designed to help people, communities, and public institutions solve civic problems and improve democratic life.
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