Lysosome
A lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle in many eukaryotic cells that uses digestive enzymes and an acidic interior to break down macromolecules, worn cell parts, and material taken in from outside the cell.
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Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane network in eukaryotic cells that helps make, fold, modify, store, and transport proteins and lipids.
Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is a membrane-bound organelle in eukaryotic cells that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for delivery to other parts of the cell or outside it.
Adaptive radiation
Adaptive radiation is rapid diversification from a common ancestor into multiple species or forms adapted to different ecological roles, often after new habitats or resources become available.
Evolutionary fitness
Evolutionary fitness is a measure of reproductive success: how well a trait, genotype, or organism contributes genes to future generations in a particular environment.
Sexual selection
Sexual selection is evolutionary change driven by differences in mating and fertilization success. It helps explain ornaments, weapons, displays, mate choice, competition, and sexual dimorphism.
Artificial selection
Artificial selection is human-directed breeding in which plants, animals, or other organisms are chosen as parents because they carry traits people want to increase in future generations.
Population genetics
Population genetics studies how genetic variation is distributed in populations and how allele frequencies change through mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and nonrandom mating.
Genetic drift
Genetic drift is evolutionary change caused by chance shifts in allele frequencies. It is strongest in small populations and can reduce genetic variation without making a population better adapted.
Speciation
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations become separate species, usually as reproductive isolation builds and gene flow between them is reduced or stopped.
Natural selection
Natural selection is an evolutionary process in which heritable traits become more or less common because they affect survival and reproduction in a particular environment.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the net spread of particles from regions of higher concentration toward regions of lower concentration because of random molecular motion. It shapes gases, liquids, cell membranes, physiology, and many everyday mixing processes.
Dutch
Dutch is a West Germanic language spoken natively by about 25 million people in the Netherlands, Belgium, Suriname, and several Caribbean islands, with millions more using it as a second language worldwide.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane toward the side with more dissolved solutes. It helps explain cell shape, plant turgor, kidney function, and reverse-osmosis water treatment.
Chloroplast
A chloroplast is a photosynthetic organelle in plants and algae. It captures light energy, uses it to make energy-rich molecules, and supports the carbon-fixing chemistry that helps build sugars.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are double-membrane organelles in eukaryotic cells that help convert energy from food into ATP while also supporting metabolism, signaling, calcium balance, and cell stress responses.
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the set of metabolic pathways cells use to transfer energy from food molecules into ATP, the small molecule that powers much of cell work.
Lichen
A lichen is a living partnership built mostly from fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. Lichens grow on bark, rock, soil, and exposed surfaces, and many are useful indicators of environmental conditions.
Mycorrhizal fungi
Mycorrhizal fungi live in partnership with plant roots, trading soil nutrients and water access for carbon from photosynthesis. These underground relationships shape plant growth, soil health, forests, farms, and ecosystem resilience.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a central metabolic pathway that breaks glucose into pyruvate while capturing energy as ATP and NADH.
Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar and central biological fuel that cells use, store, transport, and convert through carbohydrate metabolism.
Triglyceride
A triglyceride is a lipid made from glycerol and three fatty acids, serving as a major storage form of fat and metabolic energy.
Fatty acid
A fatty acid is a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group that helps build fats, phospholipids, membranes, and energy-storage molecules.
Phospholipid
A phospholipid is an amphipathic lipid with a phosphate-containing head and hydrophobic tails, making it a major building block of biological membranes.
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